home *** CD-ROM | disk | FTP | other *** search
- I. Introduction
- II. Marxism
- A. Definition & Explanation
- B. Example: Economic Evolution
- III. Resource Mobilization Theory (RMT)
- A. Definition & Explanation
- B. Example: The Parliament versus the Crown
-
- IV. Institutional Theory
- A. Definition & Explanation
- B. Example: Social Change
- V. Conclusion
-
-
- Human relationships have always been dynamic. Change and
- adaptability have gone hand in hand with the passage of time for human
- society. Systems have been developed to regulate, direct and control
- the resources of this society. The systems are referred to as
- governments and the resources as the populace or inhabitants and forces
- of production. A government must be dynamic in its nature reflecting the
- change in society. At times these systems have resisted the necessity
- to adapt with its components (Society) creating a deficit between the
- system and those it regulates. As the deficits develop, they cause
- instability, and could lead to revolution.1
- Theories have been developed to explain the systemic phenomenon
- called revolution. This paper will discuss three modern theories and
- apply them to the English revolution of 1640. The first theory,
- developed by Carl Marx (Marxism), will address the economic evolution in
- English society. This theory will emphasize and explain how the shift
- from a feudal/mercantile system to capitalism affected English society.
- The second, called the Resource Mobilization Theory (RMT) developed by
- Charles Tilly, will explain how the English organizations (the Crown and
- the Parliament) effectively obtained, amassed and managed resources.
- Samuel Huntington's, "Institutional Theory", will argue that the
- existing government at that time was unable to incorporate the demands
- and personnel that the socio-economic changes created.
- Marxism was formulated in the 19th century. Carl Marx and his
- associate Frederick Engels observed the socio-economic changes that were
- transpiring in Britain. England was the dominant world power and had
- the largest industrialized economy during the 1800's. The development
- of the factory and the institution of the assembly line created a large
- demand for workers. This demand was satiated by migrating peasant from
- the rural areas in England and Ireland to developing urban centers. As
- these urban centers or cities evolved using industry as the economic
- backbone for the population, a large number of factory workers were
- accumulated to operate the machinery in horrid conditions. These
- workers, which would be termed as the peasantry under a feudal system,
- were now the working class or proletariat. They entered cities with
- hopes of bettering their lives and survival. Though revolution never
- took place in England during this period, it allowed Marx to study
- industrialization, urbanization and imperialism.
- The theory of Marxism has three basic concepts: historic
- materialism, forces of production and relations of production. Historic
- materialism is defined as a society's past performance and present
- capabilities of satisfying the basic means of life. Humankind's basic
- needs of eating, drinking and shelter need to be met properly. The
- forces of production (technology, capital, the infrastructure of
- society, etc.) are important for the simple fact of who ever controls
- them controls the society. The last aspect of Marxism, the relations of
- production, deals directly with the relationships between classes of
- people (the aristocracy, the middle-class and the working class).2
- Marxism includes a predictive analysis of socio-economic
- structures. Using history, logic and the dynamic nature of humankind as
- guidelines, Carl Marx attempts to map out a sequence of events which
- will eventually lead to utopia (anarchy). In his work, Das Capital,
- Marx details the six steps. These steps are primitive socialism,
- feudalism, capitalism, socialism, communism and then anarchy.
- The evolution of the English economic system during the 16th and
- 17th centuries points to a shift from feudalism to capitalism. This
- shift is exemplified by the enclosures. The landlords began to fence
- their property in the common land areas. The "commons" were large plots
- of grazing and farmable lands that were used by both farmers and
- artisans. When the land-owners and manorial lords began to partition
- these lands the concept of private ownership of property was introduced
- to the socio-economic system.3
- During the time period of the 16th and 17th centuries the
- crown's economic base began a gradual decline. This economic shrinkage
- came to a spearhead during the reign of Charles I. The monarchy favored
- a monopoly market system over a competitive one. The purpose for this
- position was for taxation and control of the profits. As the artisan
- and merchant populations increased, the policy of the crown began
- conflicting with economic growth. This created instability in three
- areas. First, the English monarchy needed money to support its army
- which insures social compliance. The second area of contention was the
- restraints and interference the Crown initiated on the rising
- middle-class. Thirdly, the rise of the bourgeoisie created competition
- for the state sanctioned monopolies, reducing its profit.
- Howard Erskine-Hill refutes Marxism. He states that neither . .
- .
- "the 'rise of the gentry' . . . ideas concerning resistance to
- rulers . . . nor even the narrowing financial base of the Tudor and
- Stuart monarchy . . .determined the outbreak of the Civil War . . .
- They are circumstances . . . contributing to an outcome which
- was not inevitable."4
- Jack A. Goldstone, in his work Revolutions, argues that once
- historical data is carefully examined Marxism falls short. The Marxist
- reasons for the revolution are factors, but its scope of analysis is to
- narrow.
- ". . .the neo-Marxist view. . . with its focus on elite politics
- and the failings of Charles I run into difficulties when confronted
- with evidence."5
- An example of this "evidence" that Goldstone refers to, are the
- enclosures. The land owners had support from the farmers who resided on
- the land. The parties that were affected by enclosure movement were the
- artisans and merchants. These merchant and artisan, or rather Marxism
- rising bouroeisie, were the unfortunate targets of this policy. The
- rising English Bourgeoisie used the land to satisfy there needs for
- resources (i.e. wood for fire and craftsmanship). Thus, a new theory
- must be introduced to explain the factors leading to and the Revolution
- itself.
- Charles Tilly, in his work, Political Conflict Theory, introduce
- the theory of "Resource Mobilization"(RMT). The two aspects of RMT are
- government and those who contend with the government for power. Power
- is defined as control of the resources. The resources are capital,
- means of production and personnel. 6
- There are three characteristics to the RMT7 that help further
- explain the revolution. First, two or more organizations (government
- included) must claim the right to rule and control government. The
- conflict between the Crown and the Parliament during the 1640's meet
- this criteria. King Charles I during his rule attempted to close the
- rift between Catholics and Protestants. This policy was disturbing to
- the English populace. However, the brunt of this new policy was felt in
- Scotland and perceived was a direct assault on their religious
- organizations. The Scots rebelled and amassed a army to invade England
- an emancipate themselves from Charles I's authority. The King needed
- to acquire funds to raise an army so he called Parliament into session.
- After 6 years of silence, Parliament was aggressive against the crown.
- Instead of strong support for the King, they came with a list of
- grievances which needed to be addressed.8 It is this aggression which
- characterizes an organization contending for power in the government.
- The second characteristic, is the commitment of a significant
- amount of the population to each organization. In January 1642, the
- King attempted to arrest five MP's (Members of Parliament). Having
- failed, the King traveled north to an important port which was also a
- military stronghold, as well. Parliament denied him access. This was a
- definite sign of the waning power of the King. Charles I traveled to
- Nottingham to raise his standard. People began to rally behind the
- King. Parliament severely underestimated the influence of the Charles I
- and the idea of the monarchy. A significant amount of people rallied
- behind the King and the Civil War soon followed9.
- The third, and the most applicable, is the incapacity of and/or
- the unwillingness of the government to suppress the challenges for
- power. The King was desirous to put down the Scots, and eventually
- Parliament, after it was called into session (long Parliament). He was
- incapable in raising an army earlier without Parliament's appropriation
- of the necessary funds to pay an army.10 Therefore, the opponents of
- the Crown were given space to develop and acquire resources.
- Resource Mobilization Theory focuses on the leadership of both
- the revolutionary organization and the government in power. The three
- above stated characteristics of England in the 1640's, only emphasizes
- the short term factors for the revolution The fact that Parliament is
- actually part of the government provides a complication in the
- application of RMT. However, Parliament was struggling against the King
- to acquire more control over resources. The King showed himself as a
- bungling statesman in dealing with parliaments demands and grab for
- power. This is a classic example that shows what happens when "carrot
- ideas"11 are implemented without discretion and supervision. It could
- be argued that Charles I lack of sensitivity to the people was the cause
- for this lack of discretion.
- Even with the application of two theories, a satisfactory
- explanation of both the factors leading to the uprising and the
- revolution itself are lacking. A third theory must be brought to this
- case study. Samuel Huntington's, "Institutional theory", argues that
- there are inherent tensions between political and economic developments.
- If there are large economic changes in society then there must be
- political change to guide the modifications which are taking place, as
- well as, incorporating new social developments.12
- England's Crown during the 17th century was lacking in ability
- to be dynamic. Trade and production began to increase so did the
- population. This increase created a middle-class in England. The
- middle-class consisted of artisans, merchants, land owners and landlords
- (these classifications are not all inclusive). Competition between the
- middle-class and state encouraged monopolies became evident during this
- time. There was a definite power shift away from property to the
- people. 13
- Another long term factor lies within the King's policy toward
- the Catholics. This relaxing of tensions between the Protestants and
- Catholics was not viewed as favorable by the rising gentry
- (Middle-class). A form of Protestantism referred to as Puritanism was
- the main belief system of the gentry. This was an extremely
- conservative sect of protestantism, religious toleration was not
- acceptable to them14. This was another social development which Charles
- I "over-looked".
- Institutionalization was never a reality in British politics
- during this period in history. The organizations that existed in the
- English monarchy during the early 1600's were unable to promote value
- and stability. The system became rigid and unadapting to the demands
- for change made by new socio-economic factors. The constant attempts by
- both the Crown and the Parliament to subordinate one another removed
- their ability to reach a compromise.
- Thus, there is not one theory that can be used to satisfy all of
- the causal factors, institutional developments and socio-economic
- changes of the English revolution of 1640. Marxism addressed the
- changes the English economy made creating capitalist markets and free
- trade. It maps out the general factors which helped lead to capture and
- execution of the King of England, Charles I. Resource Mobilization
- Theory argued in more specific terms, defining that the organization
- which controls the resources has the power. It clarifies the power
- struggle between the Crown and the Parliament. Short term factors,
- present before and during the revolution, were emphasized by RMT. The
- last theory presented by this paper was Institutional Theory. It
- explained, in long term factors, the causes leading to the revolution by
- discussing the rise of the gentry, economics and religious intolerance.
- There is no single theory to explain every relevant factor
- present in revolution. However, the application of a select number or
- combination of theoretical approaches, helps to establish a proper
- framework for analysis of revolutions. Despite all of the ground
- breaking research and theorizing being done on revolution, it still
- remains a phenomenon and can not be predicted.
-
-